Poured Fire Analysis Essay

In the novel They Poured Fire on Us From the Sky, by Benson Deng, Alephonsion Deng, and Benjamin Ajak; Benson communicates a strong will to survive by using the device description. In the middle of the chapter â€Å"The Skulls Tree†, Benson describes the difficult experience he faced in the desert of Ajakageer. On his journey to Ethiopia, traveling through the desert of Ajakageer was the most dangerous part of his journey. Many of the thousands traveling to the camp in Ethiopia were ill and needed help. There was nothing they could, the only option they had was keep moving forward. Benson states, â€Å"At night, I was desperate for to have a good sleep and gain strength for the walking but I couldn’t because it was cold in the desert.† (78) This helps the reader understand the pain and misery of a Sudanese child that experienced this crucial journey. In the beginning of the chapter â€Å"The Gilo†, Benson describes what they had to do when the EPLA took over the camp. In the summer of 1991 the Ethiopian government was overthrown by some guerrilla fighters. The war once again reached them. They had to face the same problems they had. To survive, they must leave. Benson states, â€Å"The Sudan war had grown worse and spread farther. I longed to go home, but not like this-not running again, not back into battles. My beautiful homeland wasn’t a home in wartime. But to avoid conflict we agreed to leave their land and our lovely crops behind us.† This demonstrates that they were in serious danger. No matter where they went more problems caught up to them. They were lucky to get help. In order for them to survive they had to get rid and abandon there hope.

Pulmonary Effects Of Smoking Marijuana Dissertation

Pulmonary Effects Of Smoking Marijuana - Dissertation Example Research shows that many users of marijuana often inhale it as extremely hot fumes, usually to peak inspiration, and held as long as possible before being exhaled slowly. According to a study by Forrester et al (2012), this form of smoking has a greater impact on the pulmonary system because it predisposes the lung parenchyma to a greater damage than the smoking of standard tobacco cigarettes. Research concerning the impacts of smoking marijuana has been done in the past and confirmed that the risk of regular smoking of marijuana is similar to those of regular tobacco smoking (Onaivi, 2006). There are many studies on the effects of tobacco on the respiratory system as well as certain diseases have been profiled and linked to tobacco. However, few studies have focused on the effect of marijuana on the pulmonary function. Hii et al (2008) investigated the effects of smoking marijuana upon pulmonary emphysema using a series of 10 patients consisting of ages between 32 and 50, two female and eight male. The participants were those who were presented over a period of 12 months in a respiratory unit showing new respiratory symptoms and those who admitted being regular consumers of marijuana. The participants also exhibited the following symptoms on presentation including dyspnoea, pneumothorax and any kind of chest infection. In this study, high-resolution CT shows variable sized, asymmetrical emphysematous bullae in the mid and upper zones. However, CT revealed normal CXR in four patients and normal functioning of the lung was normal in five patients. This study shows that marijuana smoking predisposes individual smokers to asymmetrical bullous disease mostly in normal CXR setting and function of the lung. The study also revealed that these pathological changes take place at a younger age up to 2o years earlier compared to tobacco smokers (Hii et al, 2008).

Bridging the Gap Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Bridging the Gap - Essay Example The locks that are commonly installed in most standard automobiles are meant to increase the safety and security of the drivers but have turned against the same users on several occasions. The locks have increased the number of drivers locked inside their vehicles and thus exposing them to thugs that they were supposed to guard against. This has cost the economy over $400 million in the last two decades alone. To some extent Tenner’s argument about the perverse nature of technologies can be compared to Collins and Pinch claims that Science and Technology is very powerful and of great benefit but is still a mean helper to man. Edward Tenner observes that the unintended consequences of technology or the perverse aspect of technology may have resulted from the unknown or unpredictable nature of the world. Certain characteristics of the technological systems make it impossible to understand their functions and thus lead to unpredictability. Some of these characteristics include complexity, dynamics, intrasparence and ignorance (Tenner, 1997). Complexity is associated with the various components that constitute a real system. This also includes the interconnections among the constituents. Failure to understand the functioning of these components in a system and the interrelations between them leads to unpredictability of a system. This limits the users understanding of the entire system which ultimately leads to the system turning against the user. Another characteristic of the systems that limits the understanding of their functioning is dynamics. Technology is ever advancing and changing which implies that systems will at one time change without the control of the users. This makes it difficult to predict the actual functioning of technological devices which leads to revenge effects (Tenner, 1997). Another cause of unpredictable nature of

Judgment Heuristic and Biases Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Judgment Heuristic and Biases - Essay Example These heuristics are very useful but at times can leads to severe and systematic errors. ( Harding,707 and Tversky, Kahneman,1124) In case of representative heuristics (Tversky and Kahneman, 1126), the likelihood of an event is judged based upon the extent to which it represents the essential features of the parent population or the generating process. Representative heuristic is generally used by people to make judgment or impression about someone or something. (Koning, 1) The relative frequency of an event often depends on the availability or accessability of the object or the event under perception memory or construction of imagination. This is availability heuristics. (Garns, 1) A bias is any of a wide range of observer effects identified in cognitive science and social psychology including very basic statistical, social attribution, and memory errors that are common to all human beings. Biases drastically skew the reliability of anecdotal and legal evidence. (Doughert and Franco-Watkins, 23) For example, the apparent distance of an object is determined in part by its clarity. The more sharply the object is seen, the closer it appears to be.

National Identity of The Battle of Sainte-Foy by Joseph Lgar Research Paper

National Identity of The Battle of Sainte-Foy by Joseph Lgar - Research Paper Example This paper analyses the themes of national identity and representation in Legare’s painting. The Battle of Sainte-Foy depicts the war between Britain and France on April 1760 at the western part of Quebec City. The war is lengthy and difficult. According to Buckner (2005), the English had more or less 3,000 soldiers while France had approximately 5,900. Canadians have fought hard for centuries to gain a sense of national identity. Even though the country’s size is vast, its population is the opposite, and the entire of Canada is remarkably diverse in terms of culture that it can be thorny for its people to unite together. Nevertheless, even though significant, this does not belong to the major concerns of the Canadian pursuit for a national identity, since the nation’s actual dilemmas rest in its history (Chodos, Murphy & Hamovitch, 1991). Only as the years passed did the entire meaning of the events in the Battle of Saint-Foy become apparent and only, as well, w ith their regress, did the Canadians find power to express and depict it. English Canadians, whose identities have emerged long after the battle, as often as not deal with this event in their history with calm indifference, as shown by Legare: they can sense the victory of Britain and Wolfe and relate their identities with it, yet it is, after two centuries, an unruffled victory, without great jubilation in it, without great sentiment raised to strengthen it. Two important battles have downplayed these 18th-century events nearly to the height of insignificant fights. However, for Legare, the case is somewhat the other. The 18th century, particularly the 1760, was the period where in the French banner fell, never to rise again. Prior to 1760 were periods of remarkable successes when they were the powerful in their own lands, people of the supreme ruler in Christendom (Romney, 1999). Subsequent to it, the periods of misfortune have been ended. In that case, it is not surprising that T homas Chapais introduces his historical work with opposing images (Lower, 1958, 81): The 8th of September, 1760, at eight o’clock in the morning, the Marquis de Vaudreuil, last governor of New France, signed at Montreal the capitulation which put an end to French rule in our country. The prolongation of the heroic struggle†¦ had become impossible. The English general, Sir Jeffrey Amherst, surrounded the city†¦ with twenty thousand men, to meet whom there were hardly twenty four hundred soldiers. Food, artillery, munitions, everything was lacking. No more help could be expected from France†¦ the fatal hour had sounded and it was necessary to bow before the inevitable†¦ In the distance between them, for Legare, Chapais, and for all French Canadians, a wonder had taken place: the wonder of national identity. The painting of Legare actually make no broad depictions of the Battle of Sainte-Foy, but there emanates from the painting a breath, as it were, of catas trophe and nationalism: the people of Canada were an unfortunate people, entrusted completely in the hands of colonizers. His painting, in its entirety, is a commemoration of nationalism and in spite of its numerous errors and at times its excesses it has been recognized by the well-educated people of French Canada as the standard exhibition of the Battle of Sainte-Foy (Bumsted, 1979). In another remarkable effort to portray the emerging but weak sense of national

Generic and specific skills Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Generic and specific skills - Assignment Example Skill defines the ability to execute an undertaking to a predefined level of competency. A range of generic skills is important in the construction industry. Generic skills, which include but are not limited to computing skills, communication, ICT skills, problem solving skills, and team working skills are essential qualifications valued by employers (UK Commission for Employment and Skills, 2014, 1). They supplement the special and technical skills of employees. The varieties of generic and special skills are available in the construction market, which also includes service delivery and supply of materials. Most companies often offer training in generic skills, but specific skills are normally acquired in learning institutions. In China, the construction market constitutes a large percentage of the country’s GDP. The Chinese construction market is growing at a significantly rapid rate. Specific skills such as technological skills are in demand in the construction industry. Design engineers and architects, for instance, require special skills to come up with designs of houses and roads, and examine the structural components of construction. Despite the high unemployment levels, employers still complain of skill deficits (Klosters, 2014, 9). Staffs with generic skills are often subcontracted to work on contractual basis. Unfortunately, development of managerial skills has not been efficient because systems of management largely remain the same (Ahmad and Ryan, n.d., 1). The country’s type of economy creates several jobs in the construction industry, hence the increase of several construction companies. Even so, construction enterprises and design institutes have shown little interest in develop ing skills required in the construction industry. Even so, the competition between Beijing, Hong Kong and Shanghai means that the industry has potential. Both India and China have shown interest in investing in their

Principles of Financial Investment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Principles of Financial Investment - Essay Example The effects of these agency problems create agency costs that work against the benefit of all stakeholders as well as for the company. This write up identifies those agency problems, its agency costs, and enumerate the ways to mitigate the agency costs in order to provide maximization of wealth of stakeholders as well as for the benefit of management and the company itself. Definition of agency problem The nature of conduct of business in respect of proprietorships, partnerships, and cooperative societies is that those are owner- managed organizations. But in case of companies the share holders, who are the owners of the companies, are not involved in the management of the affairs of the company. The management of the company is conducted by board of directors. Directors may or may not be professionally trained but they have little or no stake in the ownership of the firm. It is true that there are certain compelling reasons for separation of ownership and management, but a separate structure leading to conduct of management through the agency of board of directors leads to conflict of interest between managers (agents) and the shareholders, who are owners of the company. Therefore the agency problems emerge from this separation of ownership and control. ... â€Å"This pattern of widely held corporate ownership resulted in what came to be known as separation of ownership from control. More recently, the economists have called this as an agency problem or principal- agent problem. The managers of the company are entrusted with the responsibility to make company as profitable and valuable as possible for the benefit of owners. However, the owners (principles) may have difficulty in ensuring that the managers (agents) actually carry out this responsibility.† (Robert Edward Anderson, page 49)i Ownership is concerned with maximization of wealth of shareholders. Therefore owners are always ready to critically assess the actions of the management (agents) so that their slackness anywhere is pointed out so deficiencies are rectified in effort to enhance the wealth. Accordingly enhancement of wealth is possible by making an assessment or sort of observance of the actions of the management. The key factors that are judged in management†™s performance are the composition and independence of board members, transparency of their actions, their outside reporting, observance of accounting standards, and adherence of strategic objective of enhancement of shareholders wealth. This monitoring or observance lead to difference of opinion with reference to strategic objectives of the corporation and give rise to agency problems in the corporate sector of management. Basically agency problems have two aspects. First aspect is the situation where it is not possible for the principal to verify the appropriateness of the actions of the agent. This generally is the case when goals or objective differ and create difficulties to verify what agent is doing. The second aspect of the agency problem is

Attitudes of Saudi speakers toward learning English language Term Paper

Attitudes of Saudi speakers toward learning English language - Term Paper Example From the research, it is evident that motivation tends to play a key role in the attitudes of Saudi speakers towards learning the English language. This is because the investigations carried out reveal that attitude and motivation play essential roles in learning a foreign language like English. Investigations carried out among the students in the university depict that the lack of motivation for Arabic speakers cause the learners to lose interest in leaning the foreign language. From this research, it is evident that the lack of motivation tends to affect the success of the speakers in learning the English language. Research depicts that motivation also affects the rate at which Arabic speakers are likely to learn the language. For instance, investigations carried out among the students revealed that motivation played a key role in the failure or the success of the students in learning the language. It is also evident that motivation normally affects the attitudes of the speakers to wards learning the language. From this research, it was clear that lack of motivation is likely to cause learners to develop negative attitudes towards learning English. However, when Arabic speakers are motivated to learn the languages then they are likely to develop positive attitudes towards learning English (Amin, 2009). The replies in the questionnaires revealed that it was difficult for the low motivated Saudi speakers to learn the English language. This unequivocally implies that motivation was a determinant that was essential for Saudi speakers to learn English. From the research it evident that some of the Arabic speakers may be demotivated to learn the English language because of negative external factors such as school (Arani, 2004). The other factors that affected the attitudes of Arabic speakers towards learning the English language were pedagogic factors. These refer to factors related to the teaching of English in Saudi Arabia. An examination of the responses in the q uestionnaires reveals that teaching English, which is considered a foreign language in Saudi, is normally a challenge. One of the reasons for this is because the language is considered to be of very limited purpose to the Arabians. From this research, it was evident that the teaching of the language started at school level. However, the students who were interviewed attributed the negative attitudes of Saudi speakers to the English language to factors such as; the lack of qualified teachers and the use of integrated textbooks. The other pedagogic factor causing negative attitudes towards English among Arabic speakers is the purposive curriculum. It is also thought that the achievements made by the speakers who speak the language are normally below their expectations causing them not to want to learn. In the questionnaires, those interviewed recommended that diagnostic studies be carried out in the different language areas. This was to enable the teachers identify the problems associ ated with the pedagogic factors. The students interviewed thought that the evolution of compatible strategies would have helped the students to yield maximum output when learning the language. Some of the students interviewed stated that to enable the learners change their attitudes towards learning the English language, it was essential that pedagogic factors such as the

Mary Shelley Essay Example for Free

Mary Shelley Essay I dont think the reader feels sorry for Victor because if he hadnt have rejected the monster in the first place he wouldnt have been in that situation. In the era the book was written, people were beginning to question Gods existence. Should God be the only creator of life? Should the power of science be able to create people? We found out the answer to this in Frankenstein. Victor tried to create the monster using scientific knowledge and succeeded. However, the end result of the monster was horrific. He was lonely, had no friends, and resorted to killing people. This proves science can not create life and make them fit into the human race. Only God can achieve this and thats the way it should stay. I think the reader sympathizes for the monster because the monster didnt choose to live, Victor did it for him and he only needed somebody to love. I collected the instruments of life around me that I might infuse a spark of being into the lifeless thing that lay at my feet. This quote shows he was searching for something to bring the monster to life, and that it was his decision to do this. At different stages in the story, Victor and the monster are both altruistic and egotistic. To start with, Victor is very altruistic. Whilst developing the monster he was very focused and in some way addicted to his creation. He became increasingly tired and unhealthy as he wasnt looking after himself properly. Sometimes I grew alarmed at the wreck I perceived. This shows he didnt even realise how he was treating himself, and he was alarmed when he realised. This proves he started off to be very altruistic, thinking of others before himself. At the same time he could be egotistic. He didnt think of the monsters feelings, and just focused on achieving his goal, not thinking of the consequences there were to come. Victor claims he was doing it to be useful to my fellow beings. His mother actually sparked the idea and fame and fortune drove him. So he ended up doing it for himself. The monster starts off to be altruistic as he befriends the family and helps them and generally doesnt focus on just himself. He makes adult suggestions unlike Victor who has stubborn childish responses. Victor could have offered friendship and love, but does the complete opposite making him extremely egotistic. However as the story continues it all changes dramatically and Victor and the monster almost swap places. Eager to love and to be loved, the creature is not born evil. Society makes the monster become egotistical. As society keeps on rejecting him, he becomes more and more egotistic and doesnt really care what anyone else thinks anymore. The monster wanted what Frankenstein and so many other humans had and took for granted a place to belong. Loneliness and isolation motivated the monster to turn to destruction. However, this was through no fault of his own. Victor was the first one to reject him therefore, its mainly his fault. When this starts to happen, I think the reader feels sorry for the monster, as he had no other choice but to do this, and become egotistic. On the other hand, Victor becomes more altruistic and begins to think of others. When the monster starts to kill people close to him, I think he realises he needs to do something. Victor does decide to make the creature a bride which was very altruistic, but turns against the idea. Elizabeth, Victor Frankensteins foster sister, plays a crucial part of Frankenstein. Since Victors mother died, Elizabeth played the mother role and was adored. Everyone loved Elizabeth. At many points in the story Victor is saved by the love of Elizabeth. On Frankensteins wedding day, his creature, the monster kills Elizabeth. Her beauty and innocence are greatly emphasized which takes away a lot of sympathy for the monster. When Frankensteins father knows that she was killed, he dies a few days later. What then became of me? I know not; I lost sensation, and chains and darkness were the only objects that pressed upon me. This shows Victor doesnt want to live anymore and doesnt take any notice of the world around him. He didnt have anything to live for, except to get revenge on the monster hed created. How I have lived I hardly know; many times have I stretched my failing limbs upon the sandy plain and prayed for death. But revenge kept me alive. So Victor decides to find the monster and searches for him. He tracks the monster ever northwards into the ice. He then freezes to death and dies, and when the monster finds this out he kills himself. At this point you sympathize for mainly Victor as he never got his revenge but also the monster, as he had such a horrific, lonely life. To conclude there are many different times in which the reader feels antipathy and mainly sympathy for the monster in Frankenstein, which shows he wasnt treated well at all.

Analysing The Pardoner In Canterbury Tales

Analysing The Pardoner In Canterbury Tales The Pardoner in the Canterbury Tales is hypocritical, gluttenous, vindictive, and spiteful towards others; he is morally and spiritually corrupt in the extreme. He does, however, tell a tale that, as he promises it shall be in the section that precedes his prologue, a valid sermon against avarice and greed. When Harry Bailey speaks at the end of the Pardoners Tale, he does not reject the tale but the teller, the Pardoner. Chaucer the poet aptly presents the Pardoner as a skilled orator and conman and he deliberately illustrates that it is possible for a character far beyond redemption to tell a moral tale. The Pardoner tells a moral tale against avarice, gluttony, and the love of money. The latter is a theme that the Pardoner says is always central to his sermons, citing the Latin, the love of money is the root of all evil. The origin of the tale, which was part of common folklore in Chaucers day, is an Oriental myth. The three rioters who are central to the tale, damn themselves literally and metaphorically. They betray each other over gold and their desire for it. They also drink and gamble excessively. Upon learning that an old friend of theirs has died, they further damn themselves by going in search of death. The Pardoner tells a tale, however, that is both instructive and valid as a sermon because it is loaded with advice against drunkeness and gluttony. The Pardoner cites examples of stories from the Bible, too, to illustrate the dangers of drunkenness (Solomon and John the Baptist; Lot and his daughters) and gluttony (Adam and Eve). There can be no doubt that the tale is moral. The Pardoner professes himself that although he is a ful vicious man, he can still tell a moral tale. The Pardoner as a character, an individual, and a typification of a group of professional churchmen is entirely amoral and, despite telling a moral tale, Chaucer uses various markers to illustrate why he cannot be trusted or accepted on any level. One of the most telling qualities that Chaucer gives the character of the Pardoner is rhetorical skill. The characteristic essential for Chaucer to illustrate that the teller of the tale cannot be accepted is arrogance. The question of authority is central to the Pardoners tale and its significance both seperated fro and as part of The Canterbury Tales. As the Pardoner is such a skilled orator, Chaucer implies, using the Pardoner and also by selecting Harry Bailey, one of the most astue of the pilgrims and a conman himself, to expose him and silence him so he cannot speak a word more. Apparently deeply affected by the Physicians sad and gruesome tale of Virginia, the Host praises the Physician by using as many medical terms as he can muster. However, he rejects the Physicians moral to the tale and substitutes one of his own: Thus the gifts of fortune and nature are not always good (The gifts of Fortune and Nature have been the cause of the death of many a person). Thinking that the pilgrims need a merry tale to follow, the Host turns to the Pardoner. The more genteel members of the company, fearing that the Pardoner will tell a vulgar story, ask the Pardoner for a tale with a moral. The Pardoner then explains to the pilgrims the methods he uses in preaching. His text is always Radix malorum est cupidatis (Love of money is the root of all evil). Always employing an array of documents and objects, he constantly announces that he can do nothing for the really bad sinners and invites the good people forward to buy his relics and, thus, absolve themselves from sins. Then he stands in the pulpit and preaches very rapidly about the sin of avarice so as to intimidate the members into donating money. He repeats that his theme is always Money is the root of all evil because, with this text, he can denounce the very vice that he practices: greed. And even though he is guilty of the same sins he preaches against, he can still make other people repent. The Pardoner admits that he likes money, rich food, and fine living. And even if he is not a moral man, he can tell a good moral tale, which follows. In Flanders, at the height of a black plague, three young men sit in an inn, eating and drinking far beyond their power and swearing oaths that are worthy of damnation. The revelers mark the passing of a coffin and ask who has died., A servant tells them that the dead man was a friend who was stabbed in the back the night before by a thief called Death. The young revelers, thinking that Death might still be in the next town, decide to seek him out and slay him. On the way, the three men meet an old man who explains that he must wander the earth until he can find someone willing to exchange youth for old age. He says that not even Death will take his life. Hearing him speak of Death, the revelers ask where they can find Death, and the old man directs them to a tree at the end of the lane. The revelers rush to the tree and find eight bushels of gold coins, which they decide to keep. They decide to wait for night to move the gold and draw straws to see which one will go into town to get food and wine. The youngest of the three draws the shortest straw. When he leaves, the two others decide to kill him and divide his money. The youngest, however, wanting the treasure to himself, buys poison, which he adds to two of the bottles of wine he purchases. When the youngest reveler approaches the tree, the two others stab him and then sit down to drink the wine before they dispose of his body. Thus, all three indeed find Death. Commentary From the Pardoners perspective, the Physician told a cheaply pious story and the Host, a sanctimonious fool, reacts to the tale with what seems high praise. Then, after praising the Physician, the Host turns to the Pardoner and asks for a merry tale or jokes (som myrthe or japes), even though preaching is the Pardoners profession. The Pardoner agrees by mockingly echoing the same oath the Host has just used-By Saint Ronyon. The echo of the Host indicates, if anything at all, the Pardoners irritation at hearing the Physician praised as being like a Prelate (lyk a prelat). The Pardoner is further insulted when some members of the company cry with one voice, No, dont let him tell dirty jokes! (Nay, lat hym telle us of no ribaudye). The Pardoner will have his revenge on all the complacent, self-righteous critics, and he resolves to think his revenge out carefully. The ironic relationship between The Physicians Tale and The Pardoners Tale-and therefore the Physician and Pardoner-is that both men are self-loving dissemblers. However, one of the two, the Pardoner, possesses enough self-knowledge to know what he is; the other, the Physician, being self-satisfied and affected, does not. The function of a pardoner in Chaucers time was to collect moneys for charitable purposes and to be the Popes special agent in dispensing or rewarding contributors with certain pardons as a remission for sins. By canon law, a pardoner was required to remain in a certain area; within this area, he could visit churches, receive contributions, and, in the Popes name, dispense indulgences. An honest pardoner was entitled to a percentage of the take; however, most pardoners were dishonest and took much more than their share and, in many cases, would take all the contributions. Thus, as he boasts, Chaucers Pardoner belongs to the latter class-that is, he speaks of how much he collects by refusing to give indulgences to anyone except the very good people. In his prologue, the Pardoner frankly confesses that he is a fraud motivated by greed and avarice and that he is guilty of all seven sins. Even though he is essentially a hypocrite in his profession, he is at least being honest as he makes his confession. But then, ironically, at the end of his tale, he requests that the pilgrims make a contribution. Thus, for many reasons, the Pardoner is the most complex figure in the entire pilgrimage. He is certainly an intellectual figure; his references and knowledge demonstrated in the tale and his use of psychology in getting only the good people to come forward attest to his intellect. But in making his confessions to the pilgrims about his hypocrisy, he seems to be saying that he wishes he could be more sincere in his ways, except that he is too fond of money, good food and wine, and power. The Pardoner takes as his text that Love of money is the root of all evil, yet he emphasizes how each relic will bring the purchaser more money; in emphasizing this, he sells more and gains more money for himself. Thus, his text contains a double irony: His love for money is the root of his evil, yet his sales depend upon the purchasers love of money. Furthermore, his technique of relying upon basic psychology by selling only to the good people brings him more money. His sermon on avarice is given because the Pardoner is filled with avarice and this sermon fills his purse with money. Scholars, critics, and readers in general consider The Pardoners Tale to be one of the finest short stories ever written. Even though this is poetry, the narration fits all the qualifications of a perfect short story: brevity, a theme aptly illustrated, brief characterizations, the inclusion of the symbolic old man, rapid narration, and a quick twist of an ending. The entire tale is an exemplum, a story told to illustrate an intellectual point. The subject is Money (greed) is the root of all evil. The Pardoners Tale ends with the Pardoner trying to sell a relic to the Host and the Host attacking the Pardoner viciously. At this point, the Knight who, both by his character and the nature of the tale he told, stands as Chaucers symbol of natural balance and proportion, steps between the Host and the Pardoner and directs them to kiss and be reconciled. In the conflict between the Host and the Pardoner, the Pardoner-whose official role is to get men to call on God for forgiveness of their sins-is unmerciful in his wrath; that is, the Pardoner is unwilling to pardon, and the pardon is effected only when the noble Knight steps in. Glossary à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ relics objects esteemed and venerated because of association with a saint or martyr; here, the Pardoners relics are false. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Lot Lots daughters got their father drunk and then seduced him (from the Book of Genesis in the Bible); the Pardoners point is that Lot never would have committed incest if he had not been drunk. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Samson the biblical strong man. He revealed the secret of his strength to Solome, who then betrayed him to his enemies. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Lepe a town in Spain noted for its strong wines. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Cheapside and Fish Streets streets in London that were known for the sale of strong spirits. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Lemuel See Proverbs 31:4-7. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ King Demetrius The book that relates this and the previous incident is the Policraticus of twelfth-century writer John of Salisbury. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Avicenna an Arabian physician (980-1037) who wrote a work on medicines that includes a chapter on poisons. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ St. Helen the mother of Constantine the Great, believed to have found the True Cross The Pardoners Tale There once lived in Flanders a company of three rioters who did nothing but engage in irresponsible and sinful behavior. At this point, the narrator interrupts the tale itself to launch a lengthy diatribe against drunkenness mentioning Herod, Seneca, Adam, Sampson, Attila the Hun and St. Paul as either sources or famed drunkards. This in turn oddly becomes a diatribe against people whose stomachs are their gods (their end, we are told, is death), and then a diatribe against the stomach, called, at one point a stynkyng cod, fulfilled of dong and of corrupcioun (a stinking bag, full of dung and decayed matter). This distraction from the story itself ends with an attack on dice-playing (dice here called bicched bones, or cursed dice). The three drunkards were in a tavern one night, and, hearing a bell ring, looked outside to see men carrying a corpse to its grave. One of them called to his slave to go and ask who the corpse was: he was told by a boy that the corpse was an old fellow whose heart was smashed in two by a secret thief called Death. This drunkard agreed, and discussed with his companions how this Death had indeed slain many people, of all ranks, of both sexes, that very year. The three then made a vow (by Goddes digne bones) to find Death and slay him. When they had gone not even half a mile, they met an old, poor man at a style, who greeted them courteously. The proudest of the drunkards responded rudely, asking the man why he was still alive at such a ripe age. The old man answered that he was alive, because he could not find anyone who would exchange their youth for his age and, although he knocked on the ground, begging it to let him in, he still did not die. Moreover, the old man added, it was not courteous of the drunkards to speak so rudely to an old man. One of the other drunkards responded still more rudely that the old man was to tell them where Death was, or regret not telling them dearly. The old man, still polite, told the drunkards they could find Death up the crooked way and underneath an oak tree. The drunkards ran until they came to the tree, and, underneath it, they found eight bushels of gold coins. The worst one of them spoke first, arguing that Fortune had given them the treasure to live their life in happiness but realizing that they could not carry the gold home without people seeing them and thinking them thieves. Therefore, he suggested, they should draw lots, and one of them should run back to the town to fetch bread and wine, while the other two protected the treasure. Then, at night, they could agree where to take the treasure and carry it safety. This was agreed, and lots were drawn: the youngest of them was picked to go to the town. However, as soon as he had gone to the town, the two remaining drunkards plotted amongst themselves to stab him upon his return, and then split the gold between them. While he was in the town, the youngest thought of the beauty of the gold coins, and decided to buy some poison in order to kill the other two, keeping the gold for himself. Thus, he went to an apothecary, bought some strong and violent poison, poured it into two of three wine bottles (the third was for him to drink from), topped them up with wine, and returned to his fellows. Exactly as the other two had planned it, it befell. They killed him on his return, and sat down to enjoy the wine before burying his body and, as it happened, drank the poison and died. The tale ends with a short sermon against sin, asking God to forgive the trespass of good men, and warning them against the sin of avarice, before (this, we can presume narrated in the Pardoners voice) inviting the congregation to come up and offer their wool in return for pardons. The tale finished, the Pardoner suddenly remembers that he has forgotten one thing that he is carrying relics and pardons in his male (pouch, bag) and begins to invite the pilgrims forward to receive pardon, inciting the Host to be the first to receive his pardon. Unbokele anon thy purs, he says to the Host, who responds that the Pardoner is trying to make him kiss thyn old breech (your old pants), swearing it is a relic, when actually it is just painted with his shit. I wish, the Host says, I had your coillons (testicles) in my hand, to shrine them in a hogs turd. The Pardoner is so angry with this response, he cannot speak a word, and, just in time, the Knight steps in, bringing the Pardoner and the Host together and making them again friends. This done, the company continues on its way. Analysis The Pardoner has in recent years become one of the most critically discussed of the Canterbury pilgrims. His tale is in many ways the exemplar of the contradiction which the structure of the Tales themselves can so easily exploit, and a good touchstone for highlighting precisely how Chaucer can complicate an issue without ever giving his own opinion. Thus the Pardoner embodies precisely the textual conundrum of the Tales themselves he utters words which have absolutely no correlation with his actions. His voice, in other words, is entirely at odds with his behavior. The Pardoners voice, at the beginning of his tale, rings out as round as gooth a belle, summoning his congregation: and yet his church is one of extreme bad faith. There is a genuine issue here about whether the Pardoners tale, being told by the Pardoner, can actually be the moral (325) tale it claims to be. For, while the tale does indeed demonstrate that money is the root of all evil, does it still count when he is preaching agayn that same vice / Which that I use, and that is avarice (against the very vice I commit: avarice). How far, in other words, can the teller negate his own moral? Yet the real problem is that the Pardoner is a successful preacher, and his profits point to several people who do learn from his speeches and repent their sin. His Tale too is an accurate demonstration of the way greed and avarice lead to evil. Hollow execution nevertheless, the Pardoner is an excellent preacher against greed. His voice, in short, operates regardless of his actions. Hollow sentiments produce real results. This is also reflected in the imagery of the tale itself. The Pardoner hates full stomachs, preferring empty vessels, and, though his wallet may well be bretful of pardoun comen from Rome (687) but the moral worth of this paper is nil: the wallet, therefore, is full and empty at the same time exactly like the Pardoners sermon. In just the same way Chaucer himself in the Tales can ventriloquize the sentiments of the pilgrim the Reeve, the Pardoner, the Merchant and so on, without actually committing to it. Because the Tales themselves, in supposedly reproducing the telling of a certain pilgrim, actually do enact precisely the disembodied voice which the Pardoner represents. The moral paradox of the Pardoner himself is precisely the paradox of the Tales and their series of Chaucer-ventriloquized disembodied voices. There is a doubleness, a shifting evasiveness, about the Pardoners double audience: the imaginary congregation he describes, and the assembled company to whom he preaches, and tells his lewed tales, even calling them forth to pardon at the end. The point is clear: even though they know it is insincere, the Pardoners shtick might still work on the assembled company. The imagery of the Pardoners Tale also reflects this fundamental hollowness. The tale itself is strewn with bones, whether in the oath sworn by Goddes digne bones, whether in the word for cursed dice (bones) or whether in the bones which the Pardoner stuffs into his glass cases, pretending they are relics. The literary landscape is strewn with body parts, and missing, absent bodies: beginning with the anonymous corpse carried past at the beginning of his tale. Bones, stomachs, coillons words for body parts cover the page, almost as a grim reminder of the omnipresence of death in this tale. The General Prologue, suggesting that the Pardoner resembles a gelding or a mare, hints that the Pardoner may be a congenital eunuch or, taken less literally, a homosexual, and, as the Host seems to suggest at the end, might well be without his coillons, a Middle English word meaning both relics and testicles. All of the relics in this Tale, including the Pardoners, evade the grasp of the hand. The Pardoner thus can be categorized along with the other bizarrely feminized males in the Tales, including Absolon, Sir Thopas, and, if we believe the Host, Chaucer (the character). And of course, at the center of the tale, there is a search for somebody called Death which, naturally, does not find the person Death, but death itself. It is a successful but ultimately unsuccessful search. All that is left over at the center of the Tales is the bushels of gold, sitting under a tree unclaimed. The root of the tale, as its moral similarly suggests about the root of evil, is money: and money was, to a medieval reader, known to be a spiritual death. Notably, moreover, in the tale, both gold and death shift from metaphor to reality and back again; a neat reminder of the ability of the Tales to evade our grasp, raising difficult questions without ever answering them.

Incomplete and Complete Achromatopsia :: Biology Essays Research Papers

Incomplete and Complete Achromatopsia The human eye requires both rods and cones for normal vision. Over 100 million rods are located in the periphery of the human eye, and about 6 million cones compose the fovea. Rods, the more sensitive of the two to light, are not able to differentiate wavelengths, thus cannot detect color, and perceive shades of grey, black, and white. Cones, on the other hand, are of three types, containing particular pigments. They are categorized as red, blue, and green depending on to which wavelength they are most sensitive. These cones are what render color vision to humans. Red-green color blindness is not uncommon in the general population. The unequal crossover in the X-chromosome which causes this disorder is much more easily achieved than the mechanisms which cause other types of color blindness, due to the proximity of the two pigment genes. Five to eight percent of men are affected with this genetic condition, and due to a lacking pigment, have trouble distinguishing between red, green and brown. (1) Blue color blindness, also known as incomplete achromatopsia or blue-cone monochromatism, is an X-linked recessive disorder in which only the blue cones and the rods are functioning properly. A previously proposed theory states that signals from rods travel in the same pathways which carry signals from the blue-cones, making color vision in a blue-cone monochromat impossible. However, current research on blue-cone monochromats shows that signals from some rods and cones may be traveling by separate pathways to where wavelength discrimination takes place, making color vision possible in this type of monochromat, when both rods and blue cones are working simultaneously under twilight conditions. (6,7) Total color blindness, or complete achromatopsia, is an autosomal recessive disorder. (2) This is defined as little or no function of the cone cells, (3) and is somewhat frequent among Moroccan, Iraqi, and Iranian Jews. (7) There is no treatment for this color deficiency, only ways to alleviate its expression. (4) The consequences on the lives of complete achromats are many, and those of children should especially be considered. Many educational materials use different colors to teach. If vowels are red and consonants are black, the two are virtually indiscernible to an achromat (They may be discerned under certain light conditions, a phenomenon known as spectral differentiation). They may also not have yet learned to discern the different shades of grey, and may need help deciphering traffic signals.

Gender Inequality in the Song of Songs Essay -- Womens Studies

Gender Inequality in the Song of Songs INTRODUCTION Postcolonial Feminist Theory has taught us to look beyond the confines of narrow cultural lenses as we seek to understand the diversity of gendered experience. I believe it is even more empowering to go one step further and to look not only cross-culturally but also cross-temporally. In America, when the general population tries to articulate what traditional female gender roles were, it seems they often describe those prescriptions for being lady-like from the Victorian Era, 1950s post-war America, or maybe limited snapshots of the Middle Ages, like chivalry codes and chastity belts. Accordingly women were, supposedly and stereotypically, traditionally passive and acquiescent. Proper women spoke when spoken to, and then played merely a support role in conversation. They were to express virtue through chastity until marriage, and sexual reserve even within marriage. They were not supposed to ask for the date, lest they seem too forward. They found true fulfillment only in motherhood. They were physically delicate and timid. They were sexual objects instead of active subjects. They were more often written about than authors. They were defined in opposition to men. Places such as the ancient Near East, for example, provide a wealth of information about gendered experience that blatantly contradicts the stereotypical gender-associated behaviors that we in the contemporary West tend to call traditional. Much of it is written by women themselves, such as Egyptian love poetry and Sumerian temple priestesses' administrative records. Because many arguments about the nature of the feminine versus the socialization of femininity look only to relatively recent stereotypes to ass... ...D Falk, Marcia. Love Lyrics from the Bible: A Translation and Literary Study of the Song of Songs. Sheffield: The Almond Press, 1982. ---. The Song of Songs: Love Lyrics from the Bible, A New Translation. New York: HarperCollins, 1993. Freeman, Rebecca and Bonnie McElhinny. "Language and Gender." Sociolinguisitcs and Language Teaching. Eds. McKay, Sandra L. and Nancy H. Hornberger. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996. Fox, Michael V. The Song of Sons and the Ancient Egyptian Love Songs. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1985. Gordis, Robert. The Song of Songs. New York: The Jewish Theological Seminary of America, 1961. Sweeney, Deborah. Women and Language in the Ramesside Period. The Sonia and Marco Nadler Institute of Archaeology, Tel Aviv Univeristy. http://www.tau.ac.il/~archpubs/projects/women_language_ramesside.html

Brand Awareness Essay

Extent to which a brand is recognized by potential customers, and is correctly associated with a particular product Expressed usually as a percentage of target market, brand awareness is the primary goal of advertising in the early months or years of a product’s introduction.( Noel. K, Francoise. R. 1995), Brand awareness, In general, means the extent to which a brand associated with a particular product is documented by potential and existing customers either positively or negatively. Creation of brand awareness is the primary goal of advertising at the beginning of any product’s life cycle in target markets. In fact, brand awareness has influence on buying behavior of a buyer. (Noel. K, Francoise. R. 1995), Brand awareness can be measured by showing a consumer the brand and asking whether or not they knew of it beforehand. However, in common market research practice a variety of recognition and recall measures of brand awareness are employed all of which test the brand name’s association to a product category cue, this came about because most market research in the 20th Century was conducted by post or telephone, actually showing the brand to consumers usually required more expensive face-to-face interviews (until web-based interviews became possible). (Noel. K, Francoise. R. 1995), this has led many textbooks to conceptualize brand awareness simply as its measures, that is, knowledge that the brand is a member of a particular product category, e.g. soft-drinks. Examples of such measures include: Brand recognition – Either the brand name or both the brand name and category name are presented to respondents. Brand recall – the product category name is given to respondents who are asked to recall as many brands as possible that are members of the category. ï‚ §Top of mind awareness – as above, but only the first brand recalled is recorded (also known as spontaneous brand recall). There has been discussion in industry and practice about the meaning and value of various brand awareness metrics. Recently, an empirical study appeared to put this debate to rest by suggesting that all awareness metrics were systematically related, simply reflecting their difficulty, in the same way that certain questions are more difficult in academic exams (Robert W. P. 1971), Brand recall Brand Recall is the extent to which a brand name is recalled as a member of a brand, product or service class, as distinct from brand recognition. Common market research usage is that pure brand recall requires â€Å"unaided recall†. For example a respondent may be asked to recall the names of any cars he may know, or any whisky brands he may know. Some researchers divide recall into both â€Å"unaided† and â€Å"aided† recall. â€Å"Aided recall† measures the extent to which a brand name is remembered when the actual brand name is prompted. An example of such a question is â€Å"Do you know of the â€Å"Honda† brand?† In terms of brand exposure, companies want to look for high levels of unaided recall in relation to their competitors. The first recalled brand name (often called â€Å"top of mind†) has a distinct competitive advantage in brand space, as it has the first chance of evaluation for purchase. (Jonathan, 1982) Brand Recognition Brand Recognition is the extent to which a brand is recognized for stated brand attributes or communications In some cases brand recognition is defined as aided recall – and as a subset of brand recall. In the case, brand recognition is the extent to which a brand name is recognized when prompted with the actual name. A broader view of brand recognition is the extent to which a brand is recognized within a product class for certain attributes. Logo and tagline testing can be seen as a form of brand recognition testing. For example, if a product name can be associated with a certain tagline, logo or attribute (safety and Volvo; â€Å"Just do it† – Nike) a certain level of brand recognition is present. (Jonathan, 1982) What Does Brand Awareness Mean? The likelihood that consumers recognize the existence and availability of a company’s product or service Creating brand awareness is one of the key steps in promoting a product. Investopedia explains Brand Awareness Brand awareness is an important way of promoting commodity-related products. This is because for these products, there are very few factors that differentiate one product from its competitors. Therefore, the product that maintains the highest brand awareness compared to its competitors will usually get the most sales. For example, in the soft drink industry, very little separates a generic soda from a brand-name soda, in terms of taste. However, consumers are very aware of the brands Pepsi and Coca Cola, in terms of their images and names. This higher rate of brand awareness equates to higher sales and also serves as an economic moat that prevents competitors from gaining more market share. Definition: A gauge of marketing effectiveness measured by the ability of a customer to recognize and/or recall a name, image or other mark associated with a particular brand. Examples: In today’s most competitive atmosphere, it is critical for retailers to maintain and build on their brand awareness, as well as reinforce the value proposition of their market. (Barnard. N, 1997) 7 Ways to Build Brand Awareness To some, branding might not feel like a tangible aspect of running a business. It can’t be seen like a product on the shelf, or counted like a cash drawer at the end of the night. But, branding is the reason people pay three times more for a product at one store over another. (Houston 1992), Good branding is the product of a clear vision, and nobody knows more about vision than small business owners. But, with limited resources, creating a brand identity can be tricky. Fortunately, building brand awareness on the Internet doesn’t need to take a lot of money or resources. Here are seven strategies to build your business brand: Define the vision. Before moving ahead with the web site, create a brand positioning statement. â€Å"This isn’t just, ‘What kind of web site do we want to be?’ This is ‘Who are we?’† says Harley Manning, vice president at Forrester Research in Cambridge, Mass., a technology and market research firm that advises on the effects technology has on consumers and businesses. Good brand statements typically include the company’s mission, vision and values. â€Å"It’s succinct. It’s typically something that will fit on a page easily,† he says. Build a brand worth believing in. â€Å"Do you so believe in what you’re creating that you would trademark it?† says Andrea Fitch, (president and CEO of Red Carpet Creations, Inc., and national president of the Society for Marketing Professional Services, both based out of Alexandria), Va. Really consider what kind of brand could represent the business through the next d ecade. â€Å"Don’t have a logo that in five years you’re going to be tired of and discard for another,† she says. Remember, the web site is the brand. â€Å"A web site is not just a communication medium,† Manning says. â€Å"It is actually a channel that must deliver on the promise.† Essentially, a web site should embody the promise that it makes to customers. If, for instance, a business claims to be innovative, the web site should look fresh and modern. Create a cohesive experience between all mediums. Before she launched her company’s new web site, Fitch made sure it would be an event that her potential clients would never forget. Red Carpet Creations mailed 4,000 silver tubes containing scrolls that looked like rolled-up carpet. Inside the scrolls was an announcement about the web site’s launch. Once online, the web site was an extension of the invitations because it followed through on the themes of red carpet imagery and references to visitors being treated like a VIP. Customers should easily be able to recognize the company’s brand, whether it is print, online or some other form of media, Manning says. Don’t sacrifice creativity. Once the brand’s guidelines are established, creative choices must bring those attributes to life, Manning says. Don’t let the company’s brand become so dominating that there is no room for new thoughts and ideas. Brand should be the jumping-off point for interesting ideas, not the place where every new idea dead-ends. Fitch stresses that a sense of fun and whimsy will only enhance the likelihood that people will take an interest in the web site. Don’t communicate brand at the expense of delivering. While a web site can be a significant tool for building brand awareness, clarity and functionality are paramount. â€Å"Just be careful not to let the communication about your brand get in the way of delivering your message,† Manning says. People should be able to understand how to navigate the site without knowing a thing about the company’s catch phrases. â€Å"You can’t frustrate and annoy people into liking your brand (Houston, 1992), Listen to the customers: They determine a brand’s true value. Pay attention to customer feedback about the site because, ultimately, it’s the customers’ opinion that counts. When it comes to building a brand, a company can incorporate everything from signature colors to catch phrases, but at the end of the day, it’s the consumer who decides what a brand is really worth. â€Å"It’s not what you say [about] yourself, it’s what others say of you, How do consumers make decisions? This question is at the core of much of marketing examination over the past 60 or 70 years. As marketers manipulate the various principles of marketing, so do the consumers they seek to reach-choosing which products and services to buy, and which not to buy, choosing which brands to use, and which brands to ignore. The focus of this paper is to examine the major decision-making mo dels, strategies, and theories that underlie the decision processes used by consumers and to provide some clarity for marketing executives attempting to find the right mix of variables for their products and services. Three Decision-Making Models Early economists, led by Nicholas Bernoulli, John von Neumann, and Oskar Morgenstern, puzzled over this question. Beginning about 300 years ago, Bernoulli developed the first formal explanation of consumer decision making. It was later extended by von Neumann and Morgenstern and called the Utility Theory. This theory proposed that consumers make decisions based on the expected outcomes of their decisions. In this model consumers were viewed as rational actors who were able to estimate the probabilistic outcomes of uncertain decisions and select the outcome which maximized their well-being. However, as one might expect, consumers are typically not completely rational, or consistent, or even aware of the various elements that enter into their decision making. In addition, though consumers are good at estimating relative frequencies of events, they typically have difficulty translating these frequencies into probabilities. This Utility model, even though it had been viewed as the domina nt decision-making paradigm, had serious shortcomings that could not be explained by the model. (Herbert S, 1950) proposed an alternative, simpler model. This model was called Satisficing, in which consumers got approximately where they wanted to go and then stopped the decision-making process. An example of this would be in the search for a new apartment. Under the Utility theory, consumers would evaluate every apartment in a market, form a linear equation based on all the pertinent variables, and then select the apartment that had the highest overall utility score. With Satisficing, however, consumers might just evaluate apartments within a certain distance to their desired location, stopping when they found one that was â€Å"good enough.† This theory, though robust enough to encompass many of the shortcomings of Utility Theory, still left significant room for improvement in the area of prediction. After all, if a marketing executive can’t predict consumer behavior, then what use is a decision-making paradigm? Simon and others have extended this area in the investigation of the field of bounded rationality. Following Simon, additional efforts were made to develop better understandings of consumer decision making, extending beyond the mathematical optimization of Utility Theory and the somewhat unsatisfying Satisficing Theory. In the late 1970s, two leading psychologists, Daniel. K and Amos. T, developed Prospect Theory, which expanded upon both Utility Theory and Satisficing Theory to develop a new theory that encompassed the best aspects of each, while solving many of the problems that each presented. Two major elements that were added by Kahneman and Tversky were the concepts of value (replacing the utility found in Utility Theory) and endowment, in which an item is more precious if one owns it than if someone else, owns it. Value provided a reference point and evaluated both gains and losses from that reference point. Additionally, gains and losses have a marginally decreasing increase from the reference point. For example, there is a much greater value for the first incremental gain from the reference point than for subsequent gains.

Anthropology Essays – The Origin of Medicine

The Origin of MedicineAncient Egyptian Medicine CAIRO, APRIL 2008: Ancient Egyptian civilisation has contributed important developments to all sorts of human cognition, and medical specialty is non an exclusion. Ancient Egyptians used to name a physician a â€Å"physician† mentioning to an active, a professional and a wise individual. A doctor was able to cover with what might go on during day-to-day pattern every bit aptly as a countryside general practician would make today. The physician’s occupation was non merely to go to ill people and to urge a intervention but besides a doctor would fix and distribute medicine. The doctor was normally a priest and possibly with good cognition of other humanistic disciplines. Ancient Egyptians were the first known people to hold had a elaborate survey of medical specialty and to go forth written records to depict the healing patterns. The oldest Egyptian medical texts day of the month back about to 2000 B.C. These texts were moderately free of the magician attack to handle unwellness. The earliest known doctor in history was Hesyre, who was the â€Å"Chief tooth doctor and Physician† of King Djoser in the twenty-seventh Century BC. The earliest known female doctor was besides an Egyptian. Peseshet practiced medical specialty during the period of the 4th dynasty ( 2600 B.C ) . Her rubric was â€Å"Lady Overseer of the Lady Physicians† . Equally good as practising medical specialty, Peseshet had a supervisory place and graduated many accoucheuses at the ancient medical school in Sais ( Sa el-Hagar today ) . Concept of the human organic structure: Ancient Egyptians tried to apologize and understand the physiology of the human organic structure. Given how of import River Nile was for life, Ancient Egyptians would say similitude to the flow of the mighty river and to how it irrigated the Fieldss. They assumed the human organic structure, by analogy, had channels that flowed with blood, breathed air and H2O. Peoples would fall ill if a obstruction to these channels happened. For illustration, they believed that bad nutrient would bring forth gases, which in bend would barricade these channels. They, hence, assumed that most of the diseases were because of improperly digested nutrient. Impressions of physiology and disease focused on the bosom as the centre of the homo. The bosom was one’s spouse ; it spoke to a individual in his or her purdah. It was at the same clip the engine of all the bodily work, non merely circulation. From the bosom, continued channels ( Metu ) linked all parts of the organic structure together. Metu did non mention merely to blood vass, but besides to the respiratory tubing, canals of assorted secretory organs, spermous canal, the musculuss, sinews and ligaments. The Goddess of medical specialty ( Sekhmet ) : Sekhmet was originally the warrior Goddess of Upper Egypt. Ancient Egyptians figured her as a lioness, the fiercest huntsman known to them. They believed that her pant created the waterless part beyond the Nile Bankss, and considered Sekhmet the defender of all Pharaohs. The name Sekhmet became synonymous to the Goddess of Medicine during the Middle Kingdom. Therefore, doctors, tooth doctors and veterinary practicians were the â€Å"Priests of Sekhmet† . The caput of lioness symbolized power and the supreme divinity of mending. The priests of Sekhmet were the specializers in medical specialty and surgery. Medical preparation: Students learned the medical profession at schools called the â€Å"Houses of Life† . The coachs had given them some applied experience, but chiefly the pupils had to larn from the written papyri full of cognition and experience. The medical texts were non merely a font of professional cognition but besides a precaution against possible failure. Classs of Ancient Egyptian Physicians: The societal category of Egyptian Physicians existed since the yearss of the Old Kingdom. Medical specialisation besides existed. Writing of travels to Egypt, Herodotus ( 484-425 BC ) noted, â€Å"The pattern of medical specialty based on a program of separation. Each specializer doctor treated a individual upset and non more. Therefore, Egypt was full of medical practicians, some project to bring around diseases of the oculus, others of the caput and others of the bowels. Specialist doctors did non needfully settle in the small towns and towns they practiced the art of healing† ( Herodotus: The Iranian Wars. P. 155 ) . Many doctors were priests and some were Scribes as shown in rubrics like â€Å"Chief doctor and Scribe of the word of God† . Physician ranks were an ordinary doctor ( like a general practician of today ) , a senior doctor, an inspector, an superintendent and a â€Å"Master† of medical specialty. The Chief Physicians of the South and North were like curates of wellness. Royal and castle doctors had particular ranks and rubrics. A practicing doctor had to larn the scientific discipline of drug readying and medicative workss. Ancient Egyptians held handling doctors in so much high esteem that they raised Imhotep ( the great doctor, 2700 BC ) after decease to a sacred position of the God of Medicine. Ancient Egyptian remedies: Because of old impressions of physiology and disease, laxatives had a important topographic point in Egyptian remedies. Ingredients included fresh algarroba bean, Castor oil and colocynth. Bulk laxatives of bran, figs and fresh fruits were besides in usage. Doctors used Ca carbonate and figs as alkalizers. They besides used soured milk and honey to assist digestion. They mixed aggressive cathartics with â€Å"anticholinergics† such as Hyoscyamus ( atropine ) or carminatives as Cuminum cyminum, Chinese parsley and batch. Carob ( pulverization tasted like cocoa made from cods of a certain tree ) and gypsum ( calcium sulphate pulverization ) were effectual antidiarrheal remedies. Egyptian doctors treated bosom conditions non as efficient, because the Egyptian doctors had trouble separating bosom and tummy symptoms. They recommended aloe, mustard, willow, Hyoscyamus and Punica granatum ( incorporating glycosides or utile vasodilatives ) . Diuretic drugs included Apium graveolens dulce, beer, algarroba bean and powdery day of the months. Analgesics were few and restricted to carminatives or spasmolytics. Ancient doctors used effectual febrifuges as salt, alum and willow. However, no grounds exists to the usage of narcotics or other depressants until the Roman period ( 30 BC ) . Treatment of musculoskeletal upset was topical with warm patchs, cataplasms or rubefacients ( medical specialties to blush and warm the tegument, known today as counter- thorns ) like mustard, gum terpentine, retem and olibanum. The Egyptians used Apium graveolens dulce for painful articulations ( it is still in usage today as antirheumatic drug ) . They used Crocus sativus to handle backache. Doctors and accoucheuses used gynaecological medicines to excite labour, command construct or infection. They used common wormwood ( a bitter gustatory sensation works ) for catamenial upsets and diaphragms of crocodile droppings to function as preventive ( the sourness is spermicidal ) . They recommended interpolation of juniper oil to excite labour ( now known to increase uterine contraction and launch labour ) . Ancient Egyptians have known parasitic infestations ; nevertheless, they did non acknowledge that bilharzia ( Bilharzias ) caused the haematuria ( blood in piss ) they described. Antihelminthic dugs based on Punica granatum, common wormwood, thyme and Sb, followed by a cathartic, controlled unit of ammunition worms and cestodes infestations. Antiseptics and disinfectants were effectual. Egyptian doctors used phenols as thyme ( basil ) and bitumen ; intoxicants were beer and fermented grapes juice. They besides used minerals as Zn, Sb and Cu as styptics assorted in a medium for even distribution. For cough, they recommended mixtures of honey, acacia and Sb with aromatic inspiration. Egyptian doctors used ammi visnaga ( incorporating a bronchodilator khellin ) to handle asthma. Egyptian doctors treated oculus infections with antiseptic of Cu and honey, placed on the palpebras or in the oculus. They used acacia, algarroba bean and milk as demulcents for ophthalmic remedies. Skin demulcents as acacia gum and works mucilage were popular. Doctors used Balanites oil, Castor oil and goose fat to command skin infections. They mixed these ingredients with salt, malachite or ochre and used the mixture for patchs. Ladanum treated dandruff. For phalacrosis, they used fats, oils and, symbolically, porcupine quills. For Burnss, they applied an antibacterial mixture of gum terpentine, Cu, oils and honey. To advance healing, they used Aloe vera. Pharmacy in Ancient Egypt: Pharmacy did non be as an independent profession in Ancient Egypt, but a compelling grounds exists of the Egyptians had professional protocols and criterions. The based the interventions conceptually, restricted by limited cognition of physiology. The footing of most medical specialties was herbs and veggies. Doctors used drugs in the signifier of pills, unctions and beads. They besides used dressings and deodorant readyings. Ancient Egyptian doctors did non hold a formulary ( book of standard drugs ) . Alternatively, the medical papyri fulfilled the undertaking of a formulary. Medicines were proper and effectual that BPC ( British Pharmacopeia ) 1911 included 25 per centum of the available drug substances stemmed from Ancient Egyptian medicines. Recommendation of a remedy, readying and dose pointed to awareness of possible benefits and dangers, without grounds of available formal respect to toxicity or contraindication to the medicines used. An Egyptian doctor could merely divert from a given intervention after four yearss, proposing singular protocol criterions. The statement that placebo of Ancient Egyptian medicine was greater than the curative value appears untrue. What we grasp from Ancient Egyptian history marks a society aware of the demand for health care and intervention. Doctors used a diverse scope of works, animate being and mineral ingredients to this terminal. It is true that faith influenced Ancient Egyptians day-to-day life and so had to be intrinsic to medical pattern, yet as written in the medical papyri, documented rational intervention predominated that supported by supplications. Some remedies from celebrated veggies and herbs:Garlic: Believed to give verve, sooth flatulency and aid digestion. Egyptian doctors used garlic as a mild laxative and shrivel haemorrhoids ( hemorrhoids ) . During constructing the pyramids, supervisors delivered garlic daily to workers to give them verve and strength needed to transport on and execute good.Onion: Doctors used onions to forestall colds, conveying about sweat, sooth sciatica and as a diuretic. Priests did non hold onions as neither nutrient nor medical specialty.Cumin: It is widely available in Egypt ; doctors used it to increase the enteric gesture and to handle flatulency. Doctors who were handling joint achings assorted Cuminum cyminum with wheat flour, Chinese parsley and H2O to use as a cataplasm on the hurting articulation.Parsley and benne: Doctors used any as a good water pill.Mustard: The utilizations of mustard were to arouse purging and to alleviate thorax achings.Coriander: The utilizations of Chinese parsl ey were many. It helped with loss of appetency, absent menses ( non because of gestation ) , a laxative and aphrodisiac. Ancient Egyptians believed that Chinese parsley has antifungal belongingss and deters insects. This is the cause of happening in Tutankhamen’s Tomb.The oldest medical text editions: The Ancient Egyptians recorded the medical information we are cognizant of in 12 papyri written in priestly book. They show the comparative edification of medical specialty in Ancient Egypt, consistence of pattern and length of service of remedies. The most of import papyri from the point of view of the elaborate description of unwellnesss and intervention are: The Ebers Medical Papyrus: This papyrus is 23 pages long and is largely an internal medical specialty mention. It includes anatomical and physiological mentions every bit good. It describes 876 formulas and 400 different drugs. The Ebers Papyrus consists of a list of recommendations for nutriments such as lesions, tummy ailments, gynaecological jobs and skin annoyances. The Scribe calculated the sums of ingredients for a medical specialty harmonizing to fractions based on parts of Horus oculus. Until today, the RX symbol on each prescription refers to the Eye of Horus. For some unknown ground the Scribe who wrote it did non complete the papyrus, and ended in midsentence. The Edwin Smith Medical Papyrus: This papyrus is, possibly, the work of a physician associated with a pyramid-building work force. This five metres papyrus trades chiefly with jobs such as broken castanetss, disruptions and oppressing. The doctor divided the 48 instances documented into classs: â€Å" An complaint which I will handle † , â€Å" An complaint with which I will postulate † and â€Å" An complaint non to handle † . It described symptoms of each of the documented instances, urging possible remedies. The Physician who wrote the papyrus was cognizant of blood circulation throughout the organic structure. The Scribe clearly recognized that patient’s pulsation reflects the status of the bosom. This papyrus includes a huge experience in bone hurts that can happen merely during edifice of the pyramids. Similar to Edwin Smith papyrus, few paragraphs had rubrics. However, all paragraphs included the phrase: â€Å" If you examine a patient with a†¦ , † a feature, which marks how close it is to the Edwin Smith Papyrus. This suggests that antediluvian Egyptian doctors recognized that scrutiny is indispensable to place the unwellness. Yet, the Scribe in both papyri did non advert the chances of the diseases. The Kahun medical papyrus1900 BC The oldest yet discovered, dating from the epoch of Amenemhat II. The Kahun Medical Papyrus describes methods of naming gestation and the sex of the unborn. It besides describes odontalgia during gestation, diseases and assorted complaints of females, and concerned with the uterus and finding of birthrate. The gynaecological text lies in 34 paragraphs, of which the first 17 have a common format. They start with a rubric followed by a brief description of the symptoms, normally, of a job of the generative variety meats. The 2nd subdivision begins on the 3rd page, and includes eight paragraphs, which, because of both the province of the bing transcript and the linguistic communication, are about unintelligible. The 3rd subdivision ( paragraphs 26-32 ) dealt with the proving for gestation. The 4th and concluding subdivision contains two paragraphs, which do non fall into any of the old classs. The first describes intervention for odontalgias during gestation. The 2nd describes what soun ds like a fistulous withers of the vesica to the vagina with incontinency of urine † . It besides described methods of contraceptive method. It described prescriptions for urinary, venters and kidney jobs, hurting limbs and achings in the sockets of the eyes. Did Ancient Egyptians recognize forensic medical specialty? Ancient Egyptians used to analyze organic structures of the dead to understand the cause of decease. This should non look unusual for such people traditionally familiar, as they were, to careful chase of cognition. Harmonizing to the American historiographer James H. Breasted ( an authorization on ancient Egyptian history-University of Chicago, 1930 ) , portion of the accomplishment of the ancient Egyptian sawboness was because of what they learned from analyzing the dead organic structures. Surgeons treated clean lesions were by sewing and adhesive patchs. They treated other lesions by acquiring the borders near on the first twenty-four hours, and afterwards handling them with honey and acerb herbs. Egyptian sawbones performed amputations and even more made prosthetic device. The influence of Ancient Egyptian Medicine on the remainder of the universe: The Ancient Egyptians were the first people in the universe to hold based cognition on careful and sharp observations, every bit good as test and mistake. By careful observation, early doctors began mending patterns that they have taught to many. They had a medical pattern that developed over three thousand old ages and gave much toward progressing medical scientific discipline worldwide. Egyptian doctors were celebrated in the Ancient World. Ramses II had sent doctors to the male monarch of Hatti and the Iranian male monarch Achaemenids. Greeks gained medical traditions and footing of cognition from the medical schools of Egypt ( Hamilton: The History of Medicine, Surgery and Anatomy. P. 35 ) . Therefore, Egyptian theories and patterns influenced the Greeks, who educated many of the doctors in the Roman Empire, who in bend influenced Arab and European medical thought for centuries to come. One can clearly detect the bequest of Egyptian medical specialty in few basicss of the Grecian strategy ( Breasted 1930 ) . Grecian medical specialty developed during the 6th to seventh centuries B.C. The first Grecian doctor learned the art at Alexandria during the Ptolemaic period ( 305-330 B.C. ) . The Egyptian thought of decay [wekhedu] may hold resurfaced in the [perittoma] ( infective digestive residues ) of the Alexandrine Greeks. Other characteristics adopted by the Greeks from the Egyptians included several medicative workss, how to compose drug prescriptions, the pattern of prenatal and gynaecological fumigations, and the mending value of temple slumber.

Comparison and Contrast of “The Most Dangerous Game” and “The Child by Tiger” Essay

Thesis: In these two stories we observe some of man’s darker nature. We observe two seemingly normal people with dark sides to each of them and will explain how each one is similar and also very different from one another. I. The protagonist, General Zaroff is the main focus of the essay, because of his darker nature and his motivations. A. At first, General Zaroff comes off as welcoming and kind in nature for taking Rainsford in. He gives Rainsford food, clothing and shelter after being lost at sea. B. The man explains to Rainsford that he has been a hunter his whole life and is good at what he does, but he has grown bored of hunting animals. C. He then comes to conclusion that he hunts man because of their strength, courage, and reason. D. Eventually he then forces Rainsford to participate in the game as Zaroff’s game. E. In the end, Rainsford finds his way back to the house and kills Zaroff, leaving him a s â€Å"food for the hounds† II. In the story, â€Å"The Child by Tiger†, Dick Prosser is the main character of the story. A. At first the story comes of praising Dick, almost making him seem perfect. He is a â€Å"deeply religious man† that was very talented in the things he did, and the Shepperton family believed there was nothing he could not do. B. He seems kind at first willing to help in any way he can with the family. Although, throughout the story they explain that there is something off about him. How he moves quietly like a cat, and even though he was deeply religious it seemed very dark and strange. The motivations are unclear from the character and almost unpredictable from the beginning of the story. C. The town wakes up in a panic one night, with word going around that Dick Prosser is on a rampage and has killed several people. D. Town starts a mob that tracks him down through the woods and past the creek. He kills a few more men and runs out of ammunition. He then throws his gun to the side and moves towards the creek. E. The mob shoots him down, over 300 times according to a man who is boasting about it later on in the story. III. General Zaroff and Dick Prosser are both similar in that they both had come off as seemingly normal people, and yet they both had a dark and twisted side to the both of them. A. Dick Prosser comes off as a gentle soul who the children of the Shepperton all trust and gives off the belief that he is a good person. B. General Zaroff at first comes off as a normal man who likes to live in solitude and enjoys the finer things, even being warm and welcoming by inviting Rainsford into his home. IV. They differ more than they compare, even though they both share the same twisted, dark nature. A. General Zaroff seems to live in almost his own mind where he has convinced himself that hunting other human beings as being completely normal. It has become an exciting game and there is nothing that you can see about him that has â€Å"snapped† or has â€Å"gone crazy† He simply wants to hunt something more exciting, whether it is morally wrong. B. Dick Prosser is a colored servant for a white family back in the set time where everything is very racially segregated. He works for a wealthy white family and seems to come off as a goodhearted man who is of good use to the family. Then one night it seems as though he has â€Å"snapped† and unleashes his inner demons on the town, killing many innocent victims. At the end, when the Sheppertons’ go into his room and find the chapter that he has left the Bible on shows that this was most likely pre-meditated. V. In conclusion, although both character came from two different backgrounds and the stories were both very different, they were alike in the fact that they both had darker sides of them that had been unleashed. A. Both stories portray how easy it is for mankind to be dark in nature and to become something monstrous. B. Whether it be planned and turned into a game or on a whim of the dark demons inside of them letting out, they both lived lives of corruption, which in turn, led to their inevitable deaths. Thesis: These two stories show the darker side of human nature, and although someone can seem perfectly normal, they may have a darker side to them that no one would ever expect. In the two stories, â€Å"The Most Dangerous Game† and â€Å"The Child by Tiger†, these two seemingly normal men come off as almost kind hearted and good natured people in the beginning of both stories. Later on, we realize that this is not so, and these two both have more in common than they are different. General Zaroff seems to be very hospitable and helps a man in need when Rainsford comes to his door after being lost at sea. He takes him into his home and feeds him, gives him clothing, and a nice comfortable place to sleep in. In the other story, Dick Prosser comes off as a kind and gentle man who the Shepperton’s claimed was their â€Å"best negro man they’d ever had.† In the beginning of the story, it seems that they have nothing negative to say about him and â€Å"there is little that Dick Prosser could not do.† Dick would teach the boys of the family how to play football or would teach them other handy things, coming off as a role model to the children. Dick Prosser was also a deeply religious man and would read his Bible every day, the children started to notice something odd about him. The way he moved was very quiet and unnoticed, and although he was religious, there was something dark and strange about it. General Zaroff explains to Rainsford that hunting big game animal has become boring to him and he wanted something more exciting of a hunt for him. As he goes on explaining his new quarry, Rainsford discovers that Zaroff is talking about hunting humans. Zaroff explains it is exciting because humans have â€Å"courage, cunning, and reason.† They can think logically and make it a harder hunt for Zaroff, thus far making it more exciting. He then tells Rainsford he want him to be his new quarry and gives him a three hour head start for the hunt. Throughout the three days of hunting down Rainsford he comes across three different types of traps that Rainsford has tried setting up to trap him. Each one fails to trap General Zaroff, but he finds this more amusing then anything and throughout the story he seems to enjoy these traps more because they make it a more exciting game for him. In the story his dark nature is revealed at the beginning with his conversation with Rainsford. The moment Rainsford figures out what Zaroff is speaking about, you see that there is something much darker about him. He is not the normal hunter with good hospitality skills that the story first initiates. He is now a twisted and dark murderer who finds amusement out of hunting down human beings. Throughout the story, Dick Prosser starts coming off as more increasingly strange and almost scary as it progresses. A man in the village hits the Sheppperton’s car and angrily punches Dick in the face. Everyone notices his eyes turn red but he does not hit him back. The gun that he warns the children not to speak about until Christmas morning sends off another warning sign that something is not right. Why would he be wanting to hide that from the family if there was an innocent reasoning behind it? When the sirens go off in the village and everyone is awoken to the warnings that Dick Prosser is on a murderous rampage, the town starts to panic. By that time in the story he is claimed to have already killed six people. The town forms angry mob that chases him down to the creek. Eventually, they catch up to him and he has run out of bullets. He then calmly walks down to the creek, takes off his shoes and sets them aside and gets down on his knees. The mob of angry men shoot him well over three hundred times even though the first shot had likely killed him immediately. Both of these men share the characteristics that they each had a darker, more evil side to them then first expected. The differences between them is that General Zaroff simply had grown bored and wanted something more exciting to hunt. Out of his own selfish needs for entertainment he had decided to start killing human beings for sport. Dick Prosser is a little harder to understand. At first he seems like an all-around good Christian man who wants nothing more than to be of great help to the family. It’s hard to say whether he did it because he had it planned all along from the beginning and he was more evil than good, or if he had simply snapped after a buildup of emotions and went on a murderous rampage. In the story, after running out of bullets, he takes his shoes off and sets them neatly aside, then stands up and accepts his fate. It seemed like this was his plan all along, to do his evil deed then go out with his religious mindset. The family later on finds the Bible left open on Psalm 23:4, â€Å"Yea, though I walk through the valley of the shadow of death, I will fear no evil: for thou art with me; thy rod and thy staff they comfort me. Whether he believes that God would have been forgiving of him after what he had done is a mystery. Both of these stories portray that as humans we have a good and evil side and if that balance is upset and evil takes over it can have terrible outcomes. Both of these characters chose the evil side of their good and evil balance and because they lived their lives in corruption, it resulted in their inevitable death. Resources Connell, R. (1924) â€Å"The Most Dangerous Game† Wolfe, T. (1937) â€Å"The Child by Tiger†

Oil and Global Warming in Saudi Arabia Essay

Oil has been identified as a very important resource; it provides a lot of significant benefits to mankind. It is used for numerous purposes such as transportation, heating, electricity production, and industrial applications. It has a high energy density which makes it an efficient fuel source plus the fact that it is fairly easy to transport and store. Its versatility is of great importance, and this is proven by being by most valuable commodity in world trade (O’Rourke & Connolly, 2003,). According to Doyle, it is estimated that two billion dollars switch hands in petroleum transactions, making it the world’s first trillion dollar industry (cited in O’Rourke & Connolly, 2003). Oil is very profitable for corporations as well as for governments since oil taxes generate a lot of income. Oil is important for the national economic viability of Saudi Arabia as it accounts for more than 80 percent of total national exports. Other countries that are dependent on the oil business are Libya, Kuwait, Iran, and Venezuela (O’Rourke & Connolly, 2003). Environmental Effects of Oil Oil transport, refining, exploration, drilling, and extraction have had negative effects on the environment, but much attention has recently been focused on the negative environmental impacts of the use of oil. It is widely believed that burning fossil fuels contribute to global warming since carbon dioxide, an abundant greenhouse gas, is produced as oil is burned. Findings of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change indicate that around three quarters of total carbon dioxide emissions come from fossil fuel use (O’Rourke & Connolly, 2003). To be able to fully understand the how oil use affects global warming, it is necessary to get a clear understanding of the greenhouse effect. The greenhouse effect is a natural phenomenon. Imagine a greenhouse and that is just how the greenhouse effect works. Greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, water vapor, methane, and ozone trap heat thereby slowing its escape from the atmosphere. The dramatic increase in the release of greenhouse gases has brought about an abnormal increase in the average world temperature already estimated at around 1 percent at the turn of the century. However, without the greenhouse effect, the Earth would be too cold to sustain the currently thriving ecosystems (West, 2008b). Due to the fact that oil is a widely used resource and that oil produces significant amounts of carbon dioxide as it â€Å"generates roughly 30 percent more carbon dioxide from every unit of energy produced,† it can be inferred that dependence on oil has extensively contributed to global warming (Barry & Frankland, 2001, p. 362). Importance of Oil to Saudi Arabia In all parts of the world, oil is considered as an important resource especially in modern life. â€Å"Any measures to reduce oil consumption were hampered by powerful opposition of certain governments and inter-governmental organizations† (Barry & Frankland, 2001, p. 362). Oil is particularly of great importance especially to members of Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) since it constitutes a great part of the income of member countries. Saudi Arabia is a member of the OPEC including Algeria, Angola, Ecuador, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya, Nigeria, Qatar, United Arab Emirates, and Venezuela. Saudi Arabia may be considered as the most important oil producer since it produces large amounts of oil as it accounts for 13 percent of the world’s total oil output. It makes up 35 percent of the OPEC’s total oil production in 1991. Saudi Arabia has also been identified as the â€Å"swing producer† of oil since it has the capacity to affect the level of supply and demand as well as affect international oil prices. Oil is important to Saudi Arabian economy as figures in 1991 pointed out that oil accounted for 73 percent of the country’s revenues. 90 percent of total oil exports in 1991 come from Saudi Aramco (Country Studies). However, data from Beyond Petroleum Statistical Review of World Energy shows that despite the knowledge of the implication of oil in global warming, the consumption still increased—the 3163. 5 million tonnes consumed in 1992 jumped to 3462. 4 in 1999 (Beyond Petroleum, 2008). Carbon Dioxide and Climate Change Despite the great number of proponents pointing to global warming as a real environmental threat, Idso and Idso (2008) indicate that it is â€Å"highly unlikely† that increases in carbon dioxide emissions will lead to global warming. They cited numerous arguments that would disestablish the link between the global warming and greenhouse gas emissions. They primarily indicated that there is a â€Å"weak short-term correlation† between carbon dioxide and temperature increase. Thus, the emissions may not be the likely cause of any warming that is being experienced or will be experienced. Even as both temperature and carbon dioxide emissions have increased, this does not necessarily mean that the two are interrelated. To identify a clear causal relationship, the presumed cause must precede the presumed effect. Several cycles of increase and decrease must also be present in order to make a concrete judgment that the two factors indeed affect each other. They also indicated that â€Å"a strong negative climatic feedback† will prevent any catastrophic warming from manifesting. These play a major role in the planet’s climate system but are totally ignored by scientists lobbying for the existence of global warming. They cited numerous other factors that would disprove the existence of global warming. II. Saudi Arabia The Oil Industry The Saudi Arabia landscape is characterized by the presence of several multi-million dollars worth of infrastructure created to support the oil production capability of the country. These infrastructures are costly investments made by different companies. The effort to contain the emission of carbon dioxide from oil manufacturing and processing sources has different impacts, particularly in economics. Another â€Å"important issue concerns taxes and duties on oil products consumed in oil-importing countries as well as environmental taxes and duties on emissions of carbon dioxide, aimed at curbing oil demand and potentially harming oil exporters’ revenues† (Noreng, 2006, p. 16). Oil production felt a decline. In 2002, daily oil production in Saudi Arabia was 8,928 thousand barrels, and this steadily climbed to 11,114 thousand barrels in 2005. However, this dropped to 10,853 and 10,413 thousand barrels in 2006 and 2007, respectively. Last year, Saudi Arabia’s total oil output dropped by 440,000 barrels per day and is the largest decline in the world last year. In addition, the whole of the Middle East produced 25,176 thousand barrels daily in 2007. The Middle East is also the world’s largest oil producer and holds the highest share in the world’s remaining oil reserves at 21. 3 percent with 264. 2 thousand million barrels. In measuring oil consumption, Saudi Arabia does not consume as much with 2,154 thousand barrels daily. The United States is the largest oil consumer with a consumption rate 20,698 thousand barrels per day (Beyond Petroleum [BP], 2008). Saudi Aramco and the Environment Saudi Aramco or Arabian-American Oil Company, which is based in Saudi Arabia, is the world largest oil company. It produces the most quantity of oil and also leads the count with its oil reserves. It has 102 oil and gas fields within its grasp as of the middle part of 2007. Its oil reserves amount to 259. 9 billion barrels and it produces 8. 9 million barrels per day. Its oil exports for the year 2006 amount to 2,541,692,569 barrels (Country Studies, 2008). Saudi Aramco has unveiled that it would help fight global warming through cutting carbon dioxide emission in the oil and gas business. Experts indicated that persuading Saudi Aramco to fight against global warming is a big step forward since it is the world’s largest oil producer. Saudi Aramco president and Chief Executive Officer Abdallah Jum’ah told a panel from 163 nations in a meeting in Germany about expanding the Kyoto Protocol that â€Å"the petroleum industry should actively engage in policy debate on climate change as well as play an active role in developing and implementing carbon management technologies† (Hammond, 2006, n. p. ). He clearly indicated that national oil players such as Saudi Aramco can make great contributions in forwarding anti-climate change efforts. During the meeting, Robert Socolow from Princeton University also indicated that 40 percent of the increase in carbon dioxide emissions comes from the oil industry. He also indicated that the oil industry is the major cause of global warming. Aramco officials also stated that research and development effort have already leaned towards removing or reducing carbon dioxide omissions coming from oil (Hammond, 2006). Saudi Aramco has expressed that it cares for the environment such that it has an Environment Protection Department that provides leadership on environmental issues and its operations are always environmentally responsible. Saudi Aramco considers the environment as a basic responsibility and a company commitment. The company has developed a variety of operational requirement that give consideration to environmental impacts such as â€Å"sanitary codes, project environmental assessments, air and water quality standards, occupational health regulations, hazardous material communication guidelines, waste management procedures, and vital oil spill contingency plans† (Saudi Aramco, 2008). The Environmental Impacts of Oil Oil has always been an environmental issue. From searching for oil, refining it and until its usage, it is always regarded as an environmental threat. Oil exploration and drilling are the first phases in the oil life cycle. It is also referred to as the â€Å"upstream phase† (O’Rourke & Connolly, 2003, p. 593). Drilling and extracting oil affect the natural ecosystems, human health, as well as local cultures. It does not matter if the drilling is on-shore or off-shore; the effects are just the same. The physical modifications in the environment caused by oil exploration, drilling, and extraction are so devastating that they could be more harmful than a large oil spill. The more devastating effects of these are â€Å"deforestation, ecosystem destruction, chemical contamination of land and water, long-term harm to animal populations (particularly to migratory birds and marine mammals), human health, safety risks for neighboring communities and oil industry workers, and displacement of indigenous communities† (O’Rourke & Connolly, 2003, p. 593-594). Oil exploration requires heavy equipment, and moving these equipment results in deforestation and erosion. Mobile rigs used for temporary drillings can reach weights of over two million pounds. On the other hand, drillings make use of large amounts of water and also contaminate it in the process. It is released afterwards which leads to the contamination of land. Exploration and extraction have also been known to produce large volumes of drilling wastes and associated wastes. In addition, oil processes make use of a waste pit where chemicals and other wastes from the oil process are being dumped. Exposure of these oil pits is a threat to aquifers as well as to animals and birds. They can mistake the pits for water holes, therefore engorging themselves in chemical waste. Exploration, drilling, and extraction also lead to a variety of health risks for humans. These risks may arise from radioactive materials that have surfaced from drilling as well as the bioaccumulation of oil, mercury, and other hazardous elements in animals that are consumed by humans (O’Rourke & Connolly, 2003). Oil Spill Threat In order for oil to be delivered to different parts of the world, oil transport is necessary, and the main mode of oil transport is through oil tankers. However, moving oil using pipelines is becoming vastly popular. Oil currently accounts for half of all sea cargo and oil pipelines now spread more compared to railroads. Oil transport has also led to an environmental threat known as oil spills. Large oil spills receive much attention particularly because of media coverage; however, small cumulative spills go undocumented and measuring the amount of oil spillage from these proves to be significant. Accidents have been known to occur at all segments of transport as well as at each point of transfer. Also, since the 1960s, at least one large-scale oil spill has been documented every year (O’Rourke & Connolly, 2003). Ocean transport of crude oil and petroleum products accounted for 3,000 gallons spilled per billion ton-miles in 1983 and nearly 8,000 gallons per billion ton-miles in 1984. Pipeline spills contributed less than 100 gallons per billion ton-miles for both years. (O’Rourke & Connolly, 2003, p. 599) Oil spills have also been known to occur during extractions. A 2002 estimate by the National Academy of Sciences indicated that 38,000 tons of petroleum hydrocarbons from oil and gas operations were released into the world’s oceans (O’Rourke & Connolly, 2003, p. 595). Saudi Aramco Oil Spill Contingency Plan Saudi Aramco has always been responsible in handling oil spills such that it has developed a contingency plan against to help counter oil spills. Saudi Aramco’s first focus on handling oil spills is being self-sufficient. It â€Å"built specialized oil spill recovery and containment vessels, and purchased equipment and materials to combat spills† (Zaindin, 1996, p. 2). In 1989, it even designated a committee to review and assess the anti-oil spill capabilities of the company. The task force made recommendations which were called the Global Oil Spill Contingency Plan which (1) â€Å"establish[ed] an oil spill policy for [the company’s] worldwide operations,† (2) â€Å"direct[ed] Saudi Aramco and its affiliates to join major cooperatives and assign[ed] regional responsibility for oil spills† and (3) â€Å"require[d] the development, implementation, and maintenance of regional and owned tanker oil spill plans† (Zaindin, 1996, p. 2-3). Saudi Aramco has also established an Oil Spill Committee in 1990 and this committee instituted a policy for the prevention and cleanup of oil spills resulting from the company’s operations. The Global Oil Spill Coordination Group was created to put into action and coordinate company activities that address the oil spills. If an oil spill takes place, a Regional Oil Spill Coordinator cleans the oil spill with the aid of an Oil Spill Response Team. The director takes care of the spill and is responsible for safe and efficient control, cleanup operations, disposal, restoration, as well as documentation processes. The response team is always ready as they receive special regular trainings (Zaindin, 1996, p. 3-4). Equipment that could effectively handle small to medium-sized oil spills have been stationed at the vicinity of the Red Sea and in case of any large oil spills, additional resources will be brought to immediately address the threat. Saudi Aramco has also inked ties with organizations that provide cooperative assistance in case of oil spill, namely, the Oil Spill Response (OSR) Ltd. based in England, Clean Caribbean Cooperative (CCC), Marine Preservation Association (MPA), Marine Industry Repsonse Group (MIRG), and the Gulf Area Oil Companies Mutual Aid Organization (GAOCMAO) (Zaindin, 1996, p. 4). III. Involvement Saudi Arabia and Japan Saudi Arabia has been involved in a lot of international treaties. One of these treaties was signed with Japan when both countries, among other things, acknowledged the importance of the stability of the world oil market as well as the importance of adopting security measures against global warming (Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan, 2007). Both sides reaffirmed the importance of the stability of the world oil market. The Japanese side expressed its appreciation and understanding for the Saudi Arabia’s balanced oil policy, which is a secure and reliable source for providing oil supplies to the international markets in general, and to the Japanese market in particular†¦while stressing the significance to further promote bilateral cooperation in energy, based upon mutually complementary relationship between Saudi Arabia, with its largest hydrocarbon resource in the world, and Japan, with its advanced energy-related technologies. The Saudi side expressed its intention to continue to assure stable oil supply to Japan, and the Japanese side expressed its appreciation for this (Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan, 2007). Both sides [also] decided that the international community should adopt appropriate measures against a possible global warming, based on the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities as stated in the international agreements on climate change. In this regard, the Japanese side expressed its willingness to develop its cooperation in both levels of government and private sectors to promote the clean development mechanism (CDM) that contributes to combating the possible global warming as well as achieving sustainable developments in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Both sides reaffirmed the importance of the roles of the private sectors in both countries for promoting CDM projects (Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan, 2007). Saudi Arabia should use the power of the law, as well as submit to the rule of international law, in order for efforts versus global warming to be successful. â€Å"Law plays an important role in environmental protection at both the international and the national levels† (Chopra, Leemans, & Kumar, 2005, p. 41). However, a drawback to this concept is the fact that Saudi Arabia itself shows signs of not being fully amenable to the stipulations of several international agreements and international laws on global warming. â€Å"Some OPEC countries (e. g. Saudi Arabia and Kuwait) also opposed the FCCC (Framework Convention on Climate Change) for fear of its potential impact on the price of crude oil† (Alexander & Fairbridge, 1999, p. 637). The Clean Air Act and Addressing Global Warming The Clean Air Act is a law that has been passed by some countries in a hope to control air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions. Numerous developed countries such as the United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom have adopted such laws and even some third world countries have done so. Saudi Arabia has yet to adopt such a law. In the United States, the Clean Air Act is a federal law which means that its coverage spans the whole country and it has been an effective tool in regulating greenhouse gas emissions. The Environment Protection Agency (EPA) plays a crucial role in regulating processes regarding the law such as setting limits on certain air pollutants. The Clean Air Act which resulted in reduced air pollution has improved human health as well as the status of the environment. Since 1970, the six common air pollutants have been reduced to 50 percent while air toxics from large industries including oil refineries have been reduced by 70 percent. Additionally, new cars are 90 percent cleaner and are expected to be a lot cleaner in the future. Ozone depleting chemicals such as CFC’s have also ceased production. This all happened while the economy prospered and energy and vehicle use increased (EPA, 2008). The same benefits could possibly be reaped if Saudi Arabia would adopt the same policies. The 2007 Climate Change Performance Index indicated that Saudi Arabia is at the bottom of the list when it comes to addressing global warming followed by the United States, China and Malaysia. Sweden, Britain and Denmark were identified as the countries that have been doing the most to prevent further global warming. Nevertheless, the report indicated that what Sweden, Britain and Denmark are doing are not enough to prevent further climate change. IV. Organizations Different organizations and alliances take part in addressing global warming, like the Kyoto Protocol and the WTO. While Saudi Arabia is an active international player, it is not always in agreement with the rest of the group. Referring to the act of non compliance to the Protocol’s instituted policies, Grosse (2005) stated that â€Å"Saudi Arabia has been among the non-Annex I countries that have been particular to the Protocol† (p. 155). â€Å"The issue of subsidies favoring the coal, nuclear renewables sector has been raised by Saudi Arabia in the WTO’s Committee on Trade and Environment,† according to Yamin and Depledge (2004, p. 256), in reaction to the WTO policies. The Kyoto Protocol The Kyoto Protocol is one doctrine that binds nations that have ratified it to help fight against global warming by reducing their emissions of six greenhouse gases, namely, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, sulfur hexafluoride, HFC’s and PFC’s. It was instituted in Kyoto, Japan on December 1997 and was opened for ratification on March 16 of the succeeding year. The main goal of the Kyoto Protocol is to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to 5. 2 percent below the 1990 greenhouse gas emission levels from 2008 to 2012. Countries that have bound themselves to the protocol must adopt certain policies and strategies in order to meet the specified emission targets. However, the protocol has been subject to a lot of debate because it exempts developing countries, such as China and India as well as Saudi Arabia, from having emissions cuts. The United States refused to ratify the Kyoto Protocol because of the exemption of the developing countries. US President George W. Bush also stated that they will not sign the protocol because it does not bind developing countries and that it would be harmful to the US economy (West, 2008a). Late in 2004, the government of Saudi Arabia has approved of the Kyoto Protocol, but being a developing country, Saudi Arabia is not bound to adopt any cuts on greenhouse emissions although it is expected that the Saudi Arabian government will suffer huge financial losses as the developed countries approve the protocol. According to Saudi Oil Minister Ali al-Naimi, the government will have accumulated losses amounting to $19 billion by 2010 because of the policies that the developed nations will adopt in order to reduce their emissions to meet the specified targets (Planet Ark, 2004). Carbon Capture and Storage Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) is one approach that scientists are looking at which could probably help mitigate global warming. It has been regarded that CCS will reduce the costs associated with mitigating climate change as well as provide flexibility in attaining greenhouse gas reduction goals. CCS makes use of new technology. It collects and concentrates the carbon dioxide produced in industrial and energy related sources and transports it to a storage location where it will be kept away from the atmosphere. This would allow the use of fossil fuels such as oil with a minimum level of greenhouse emissions (Metz, Davidson, de Coninck, Loos, & Meyer, 2005). Geological storage is one form of CCS. It is done by injecting carbon dioxide in dense form into rock formations underground. Porous rock formations have great potential in storing carbon dioxide. Such rock formations may include those that previously hold oil and natural gas. This kind of carbon storage is already being used in three industrial sites, namely, the Sleipnir Project in the North Sea, the Weyburn Project in Canada and the In Salah Project based in Nigeria. Moreover, 30 megatons of carbon dioxide per year is injected for Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR). This is mostly in Texas and the United States. This system of carbon capture and storage makes use of almost the same technology used for the exploration and production of gas (Metz, et al. , 2005). Geological storage may however be associated with some risks. Leakage from stored carbon dioxide may provide certain risks which are classified as either global risks or local risks. Global risk is identified as the release of carbon dioxide which will have significant effects on global warming. On the other hand, carbon dioxide leakage may also expose humans, ecosystems and groundwater to certain risks. These are the local risks (Metz, et al. , 2005). Annex 1 shows an overview of geological storage. Annex 1: Overview of Geological Storage Another type of carbon storage is ocean storage. It is done by injecting captured carbon dioxide at depths of greater than 1,000 m. under the ocean. This would isolate the carbon dioxide from the atmosphere for centuries. Consequently, the stored carbon dioxide will become part of the global carbon cycle. However, just like geological storage, ocean storage also has certain risks such that it can cause a great deal of harm. Studies have indicated that animals have been found with reduced rates of calcification, reproduction, growth, circulatory oxygen supply and mobility, and even an increased mortality rate. Annex 2 shows detailed information on Ocean Storage (Metz, et al. , 2005). Annex 2: Overview of Ocean Storage Mineral carbonation and industrial use is yet another form of carbon capture and storage. Mineral carbonation makes use of converting carbon dioxide into solid inorganic carbonates through some form of chemical reaction. Mineral carbonation is actually a natural earthly process called â€Å"weathering† but human intervention needs to hasten this process since it is too slow to become a viable carbon storage system. Industrial use involves using carbon dioxide â€Å"directly or as a feedstock for production of various carbon-containing chemicals† (IPCC, __, p. 39). Industrial use makes use of chemical and biological processes wherein carbon dioxide is utilized as a reactant. The industrial use of carbon dioxide can help keep carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere by instead diverting it into a â€Å"carbon chemical pool†, but this measure will only be of great benefit to preventing climate change if there is a significant amount of carbon dioxide taken away from the atmosphere. Refer to Annex 3 for more detailed information (Metz, et al. , 2005). Annex 3: Mineral Carbonation and Industrial Use Saudi Arabia and the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) have expressed support with the development of this technology. Norway also demonstrated great interest with Carbon Capture and Storage technology. Norwegian Oil and Energy Minister Aaslaug Haga has requested the support of the Saudi Arabian government in the development of CCS to which Saudi Oil Minister Ali al-Naimi responded eagerly. Dagens Naeringsliv quoted al Naimi saying that â€Å"both Saudi Arabia and Norway are concerned about the environment and want to reduce emissions with all possible means. CO2 capture and storage is an excellent way to reduce emissions† (Acher, 2008, n. p. ). These countries want carbon capture technology included in the Clean Development Mechanism so that industrialized countries can cooperate to help advance this technology (Acher, 2008). According to the European Technology Platform on Zero Emission Fossil Fuel Power Plants, it is the lack of funding which impales research on carbon capture which then limits its potential (Kanter, 2008). The King of Saudi Arabia announced that the Saudi Arabian government will shell out 300 million USD for research on climate change, and this includes Carbon Capture and Storage technology. Kuwait, Qatar, and the United Arab Emirates also made an assurance that each of them will be giving $150 million each tom support the Saudi Arabian endeavor (OPEC, 2007). Saudi Arabia shelling out that huge an amount of money for climate change research would indicate that the kingdom is now giving attention to climate change. The World Trade Organization Saudi Arabia is now also a part of the World Trade Organization (WTO) and has recently signed a bilateral trade agreement with the United States. The trade agreement came at a good time since Saudi Arabian imports have experienced a decline. The WTO has become a sign of respect and acceptance for Saudi Arabia particularly because it is the only GCC country and the largest oil producer (Zahid, 2005). Saudi Arabia initially did not join GATT, the WTO’s predecessor global trade agreement because oil, its sole export at the time, was not part of GATT (still not part of WTO). Later, as the Kingdom developed its downstream oil and petrochemical capacity, joining WTO became a key imperative in order to protect its exports from inordinate tariffs by mature, high-cost producer countries. (Zahid, 2005) For new aspirants at the WTO, rules may be harsh such that they will need to sign bilateral agreements with any member country that requests it, and the terms will have to be extended to other member countries. Afterwards, a multilateral agreement should be inked with all member countries before being admitted into the WTO (Zahid, 2005). According to Zahid, the WTO had some negative impacts on Saudi Arabia but the WTO may be likened to a medicine. â€Å"It is painful to swallow but it eventually makes you better† (Zahid, 2005, n. p. ). In the short term, the WTO will hurt Saudi Arabia, but in the long run, the Saudi Arabian economy will prosper because of the WTO such that there will be increased transparency, protection of copyrights, rule of law, and foreign investment. Saudi Arabia’s exports will also have access to WTO member countries (Zahid, 2005). The full impact of WTO will be a long and unfolding story for the country. We still need to know the details of the final agreement. WTO has given other countries long implementation periods and many exceptions. Also, we have to see what the final Saudi offer is in terms of tariffs, sectors, binding rates, etc. With this report, we start a series on what the WTO means for Saudi Arabia. (Zahid, 2005) On one point of view, it is regarded that the WTO can enforce better greenhouse gas reductions compared to the Kyoto Protocol. Peter Franklin of the Guardian proposes the: Negotiat[ion of] a successor to Kyoto and then let the WTO enforce it. Nations that failed to meet their carbon targets would have a proportionate tariff slapped on their imports. Such a system could even be used to deal with countries that refused to sign up to the new agreement. The WTO would unilaterally impose a target on each non-signatory nation, with their excess carbon emissions and consequent penalties being assessed in absentia. The export-led economies of China, India and other key Kyoto absentees would be particularly susceptible to such pressure (Franklin, 2006). The Kyoto Protocol has no fangs and this could be filled in by the WTO as those who do not approve of reducing greenhouse targets will have to suffer some consequences from the WTO. This could however be treated as a disrespect to a country’s sovereignty. In the long run, since the WTO would attract more foreign investment, foreign investments will also be encouraged in developing alternative, renewable energy solutions in Saudi Arabia. Consequently, CCS can thrive from a commercial point of view as the awareness of climate change would trigger interest in forwarding this technology for economic gains. The WTO system encourages a good government, which in turn will help in framing policies for increased participation in anti-climate change efforts. V. Problems and Solutions The planet’s worsening climate condition is partly the doing of the industrial cities in Saudi Arabia, from where carbon dioxide emissions from oil manufacturing and processing come from. The investment of Saudi Arabia in finding solutions for the problems posed by global warming is research and resources. Countries like Saudi Arabia allocate funds for studies. It focuses its studies on oil-related aspects of global warming management. It is important for countries to sponsor studies so that they can get first hand information about global warming and its implications. â€Å"Nations should foster the continued development of these epistemic communities not only to stimulate new avenues of research, but also to help create greater opportunities for consensus building and coordinated action† (Lee, 1995, p. 14). In reducing carbon dioxide emissions coming from oil, there are a variety of methods that could be adopted. One is eliminating subsidies to prevent increase in consumption levels. Simply saving up on energy use can help alleviate greenhouse emissions. Resorting to renewable energy sources provides great potential in dealing with this environmental threat since these renewable energy sources produce no amount of emissions whatsoever. For countries like Saud